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Language of flowers

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(Redirected from Floral vocabulary)
"Floriography" redirects here. For the album by Moddi, see Floriography (album). For other uses, see The Language of Flowers (disambiguation).
Color lithograph Langage des Fleurs (Language of Flowers) by Alphonse Mucha (1900)

Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.

History

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Illustration from Floral Poetry and the Language of Flowers (1877)

According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the Walled Gardens of Cannington, the renewed Victorian era interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in Ottoman Turkey, specifically the court in Constantinople[1] and an obsession it held with tulips during the first half of the 18th century. In the 14th century, the Turkish tradition sélam had an influence on the language of flowers. Sélam was a game of gifting flowers and objects to send a message, the interpretation of the message revealed through rhymes.[2]

During the Victorian age, the use of flowers as a means of covert communication coincided with a growing interest in botany. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by the Englishwoman Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), who brought it to England in 1717, and Aubry de La Mottraye (1674–1743), who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's Dictionnaire du language des fleurs (1809) appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote Le langage des Fleurs.

Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora, first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book.[3]

Interest in floriography soared in Victorian England, North America and France[4] during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings of romance and courtship which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society.[5][6] Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets" or "word poesy,” called nosegays or tussie-mussies, which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory.[6]: 25, 40–44  The word "nosegay" was used because the flowers would smell nice and the word "gay" meant ornament. These accessories were originally worn to mask the scent of the streets and body odor, and were often composed of fragrant herbs and flowers such as lavender, lemon balm, and roses.[7]

During the 16th century, the purpose of the tussie-mussies changed. They were commonly gifted to a love interest. The meaning of flowers was determined by their cultural meanings along with legends and myths. In England and America, courses such as botany, painting flowers, and floral arranging became popular in education, especially for young women.[8] Tussie-mussies are still used in modern-day as corsages and boutonnieres.[9]

In the United States, the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly Saturday Evening Post and monthly Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment. These pieces contained the botanic, English, and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning; therefore readers could select flowers appropriately to send a message.[8] However, the first books on floriography were Elizabeth Wirt's Flora's Dictionary and Dorothea Dix's The Garland of Flora, both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828.

During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors. Sarah Josepha Hale, longtime editor of the Ladies' Magazine and co-editor of Godey's Lady's Book, edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. Catharine H. Waterman Esling wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, Flora's Lexicon; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry, first published in 1841. Frances Sargent Osgood, a poet and friend of Edgar Allan Poe, first published The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s.

Meanings

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The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the mimosa, or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red rose and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the blood of Christ and the intensity of romantic love, while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the five crucifixion wounds of Christ. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The black rose (in nature, a very dark shade of red, purple, or maroon, or may be dyed)[10] may be associated with death and darkness due to the traditional (Western) connotations of the shade.[11]

"A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie (a.k.a. nosegay). If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'."[12] Details such as positioning of flowers and their buds were very important and carried different messages.[13]

The action of giving flowers served as a silent answer to a question. If flowers were presented with the right hand it would indicate the answer to the question was "yes", if the flowers were given with the left hand it meant "no". Important details such as which side the bow was tied determined if the message applied to the person presenting the flowers or the person receiving them.[14]

Later authors inspired by this tradition created lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.[15]

In literature

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William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, and children's novelist Frances Hodgson Burnett, among others, used the language of flowers in their writings.

I know a bank where the wild thyme blows,
Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows,
Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine,
With sweet musk-roses and with eglantine:
There sleeps Titania sometime of the night,
Lull'd in these flowers with dances and delight;

– A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Act 2, Scene 1

Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets.[16] In Hamlet, Ophelia mentions the symbolic meanings of flowers and herbs as she hands them to other characters in Act 4, Scene 5: pansies, rosemary, fennel, lilies, columbine, rue and daisy. She regrets she has no violets, she says, "... but they wither'd all when my father died".[17] In The Winter's Tale, the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, daffodils, and primroses to make garlands for her friends. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Oberon talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers.[18]

In J. K. Rowling's 1997 novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Severus Snape uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and Harry Potter's mother, according to Pottermore.[19]

Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story "The Chrysanthemums" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work.[20]

Hajime Isayama frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series Attack on Titan, which also includes Hanakotoba (花言葉), the Japanese form of floriography.[21][22]

In art

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Several Anglican churches in England have paintings, sculpture, or stained glass windows of the lily crucifix, depicting Christ crucified on or holding a lily. One example is a window at The Clopton Chantry Chapel Church in Long Melford, Suffolk, England, UK.

The Victorian Pre-Raphaelites, a group of 19th-century painters and poets who aimed to revive the purer art of the late medieval period, captured classic notions of beauty romantically. These artists are known for their idealistic portrayal of women, emphasis on nature and morality, and use of literature and mythology. Flowers laden with symbolism figure prominently in much of their work. John Everett Millais, a founder of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, used oils to create pieces filled with naturalistic elements and rich in floriography. His painting Ophelia (1852) depicts Shakespeare's drowned stargazer floating amid the flowers she describes in Act IV, Scene V of Hamlet. The Edwardian artist John Singer Sargent spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside, frequently utilizing floral symbolism. Sargent's first major success came in 1887, with Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, a large piece painted on site in the plein air manner, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden.

Contemporary artist Whitney Lynn created a site-specific project for San Diego International Airport[23] employing floriography, utilizing flowers' ability to communicate messages that otherwise would be restricted or difficult to speak aloud.[24] Lynn previously created a work, Memorial Bouquet,[25] utilizing floral symbolism for the San Francisco Arts Commission Gallery. Based on Dutch Golden Age still-life painting, the flowers in the arrangement represent countries that have been sites of US military operations and conflicts.

The Language of Flowers Around the World

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Though the language of flowers is popularly known through its romantic and Victorian roots, this practice is not new to other parts of the world. This said, there is no universally accepted set of meanings for flowers. Instead of a standardized symbolic system, floral symbolism functioned as a collection of associations, with interpretations varying between different books and sources. The books that compile floral vocabularies, often referred to as "language of flowers" books, belong to a broader category of sentimental flower literature.[26] Unlike botanical or horticultural texts that focus on scientific classification or cultivation, these works emphasize the emotional and symbolic associations of flowers, reflecting themes of sentiment and personal meaning rather than practical uses.[27]

Esoteric Aspects of Nature

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The way it’s interpreted through nature can differ greatly depending on the perspective it takes. Philosophers often view nature as esoteric, filled with hidden meanings, while scientists, adhering to a positivist approach, see it as a system that can be fully understood through study and exploration. These contrasting views have long created a divide between the two schools of thought.[28]

However, nature has always held a deep significance in human culture, influencing religion, mythology, and symbolism[29]. Scholars of symbolism have explored how nature, especially through its plants and flowers, communicates a hidden language. This symbolic language has shaped human culture, offering diverse interpretations of natural phenomena across different societies and time periods.[30]

Also, since ancient times, flowers have fascinated people, who have dedicated considerable effort to cultivating them, even without a clear practical benefit[31]. On the other hand, while certain symbolic themes are common across cultures, each era has developed its own interpretation of flowers, expanding and enriching the language of floral symbolism through literature and customs.[32]

The significance of nature, particularly flowers, is evident even in prehistoric times, as shown by the discovery of flowers in ancient burial sites, where they were placed as part of rituals, reflecting their spiritual importance to early humans. [33] So, a flower is more than just a visual object, it can carry profound symbolic meanings that resonate with human emotions and experiences.

Relief on Level 4, Balustrade at Borobudur, Java, Indonesia

Cultural and Religious Nuances

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When considering the relationship between humans and flowers through a cultural lens, it can be examined through the varied perceptual experiences that different flowers evoke. The way individuals within a specific culture process floral imagery and construct meanings around flowers is shaped by their sensory interpretations and cultural influences. [34] Cultural interactions are often fluid, overlapping, and, at times, contradictory. Recognizing these complex relationships is essential, as the blending of different cultural elements can produce both ambiguous meanings and paradoxical effects, making the process of cultural exchange more intricate than it may initially appear.[35]

Flowers have been used by cultures throughout history to express their unique perspectives on life. From mythology and symbolism to religion, art, literature, crafts, and industry, flowers have long held a special place in human expression. This enduring fascination with flowers has given rise to a symbolic language that resonates across cultures worldwide.[36]

Historical Background Across Cultures

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Ancient Egypt

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The ancient Egyptians, known for their deep religiosity, expressed their reverence for nature through a profound appreciation for plants, particularly flowers. They are credited with the early tradition of associating flowers with the deceased, using them in burial rituals as a form of purification.[36]

Israel

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In contrast, the Hebrews incorporated flowers into celebratory feasts, such as Pentecost, a festival of gratitude for a successful harvest, and the Feast of Tabernacles, marking the arrival of autumn.[36]

Hinduism

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In Hindu tradition, flowers are linked to the element of air or aether, while in China, where rituals hold great significance, Tantric-Taoist symbolism views flowers as a tool for spiritual enlightenment, representing inner transformation akin to the elixir of longevity.[36]

Japan

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Among floral traditions, Japanese Ikebana stands out as the highest form of symbolic floral arrangement. This art follows a ternary structure, where the tallest branch represents heaven, the middle branch signifies humanity, and the lowest branch symbolizes the earth, positioning man as the bridge between the two realms[36].

Nagoya Ikebana Art Exhibition Sakae

The development of Ikebana and Hanakotoba (the language of flowers) in Japan is deeply intertwined with religious and philosophical traditions, particularly Shinto and Buddhism. Both belief systems emphasize a profound respect for nature and its spiritual significance. In Shinto, all elements of the natural world are believed to possess a spirit or energy, reinforcing the idea that nature is alive and interconnected with human existence. This worldview likely contributed to the enduring presence of floral symbolism in Japanese culture and literature. Scholar Davis F. Hadland highlights this relationship, stating, “Take away their landscape, and you take away at once their sense of poetry, and, we may almost add, the floral side of their religion too, for the Japanese worship flowers and trees in a way utterly impossible to the more prosaic Westerner” (2014, p. 155).[37]

Ancient Greece

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The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, with their appreciation for aesthetics, celebrated flowers through art and architecture, immortalizing their beauty in mosaics, friezes, and vase paintings, where flowers were closely associated with joy and the pleasures of life.[36] This love and appreciation for flowers is evident, especially in their mythology and literature, often tied to themes of transformation, life, and death. For example, Daphne, a nymph, turned into a laurel tree to escape Apollo, making the laurel a symbol of victory and divine favor. The pomegranate, linked to Persephone, held significance in the Underworld, representing the cycle of life and death.[38]

Here are some notable flowers in Greek mythology:

Flower Symbolism Images
Laurel (Daphne) Victory, prophecy, purification
Rose Love, passion, secrecy
Narcissus Self-absorption, death, renewal
Violet Fertility, love, Athens
Hyacinth Death, rebirth, athletic prowess
Lily (Krinon) Purity, motherhood
Anemone Death, forsaken love
Iris Communication with the gods, the rainbow
Crocus Love, awakening
Poppy Sleep, peace, fertility
Myrtle Love, marriage, peace
Asphodel Death, afterlife
Pomegranate Blossoms Marriage, fertility, and the underworld

Table 1

These flowers had a significant influence on Greek culture, leaving a visible mark in various forms. In art, they were commonly featured as prominent motifs on pottery dating back to the sixth century BCE. Red-figure vases, for instance, often depicted women holding wreaths of myrtle and rose in wedding scenes, while the Parthenon frieze showed maidens carrying flower baskets during religious processions. [39]

Eastern vs. Western Interpretations

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For example, a key distinction between Eastern and Western floral symbolism lies in the selection of flowers, which varies across cultures and complicates the idea of a universal floral language. In Western traditions, the rose is considered the "queen of flowers," while in China, the tree peony holds greater symbolic significance as the "king of flowers."[40] In addition, in both China and Japan and many Buddhist countries, the lotus is the most significant religious flower symbol, closely associated with Buddha. Representing truth, perfection, and immortality (Koehn, Japanese Flower Symbolism), it frequently appears in depictions of Buddha and references to his teachings.

Flower Eastern Western Images
Cherry Blossom Loyalty, patriotism, a life lived joyfully A good education
Narcissus Good fortune, happiness Egoism
Lotus Purity, truth eloquence
Willow Meekness, femininity, good luck Melancholy
Peony Masculinity, brightness, prosperity Boldness
Pomegranate fertility fatuity

Table 2

(Clement; Koehn, Japanese Flower Symbolism; and Koehn, Chinese Flower Symbolism)

In the 21st century

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Floriography in the 21st century has been reduced but has been displayed in different ways. For example, tattoos of flowers and plants may carry symbolism and significance which relate to their historical meaning.[41] The same can be said for jewelry designed and worn based on what the flowers represent. Floriography can still be found in traditional ways through bouquets, a common example of this would be the common practice of gifting red roses on Valentine's Day to represent love and romance and wearing poppies for remembrance.[42] The gifting of flowers is not always personal, businesses and organizations may send floral arrangements to communicate professionalism and success. While the traditional use of floriography may have changed, the symbolism of flowers continues to provide a connection between humans and nature.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "The Language of Flowers". Bridgwater College. 2016-02-12. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
  2. ^ "Decoding Love: The Language of Flowers". Tonya Mitchell. 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  3. ^ Reprints published by Robert Tyas, London, 1841; Houlston and Stoneman, London, 1844; George Routledge and Sons, London, 1869; George Routledge and Sons, London, 1875; George Routledge And Sons, London, 1880.
  4. ^ "Floriography: The History and Traditions of the Language of Flowers". www.byarcadia.org. 14 May 2023. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  5. ^ Greenaway, Kate. Language of Flowers. London: George Routledge and Sons.
  6. ^ a b Laufer, Geraldine Adamich (1993). Tussie-Mussies: The Victorian Art of Expressing Yourself in the Language of Flowers. Workman Publishing. pp. 4–25, 40–53. ISBN 9781563051067.
  7. ^ Sproule, Rob (2021-10-06). "The Lost Language of Flowers: Victorian Floriography - Salisbury Greenhouse - Blog". Salisbury Greenhouse. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
  8. ^ a b Adamich Laufer, Geraldine (1993). Tussie Mussies The Victorian Art of Expressing Yourself in the Language of Flowers. Workman Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 1563051060.
  9. ^ "The Language of Flowers: History and Symbolic Meanings". Rootwell Products Inc. 2016-07-05. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  10. ^ "Roses Color Meaning and Symbolism". www.petalrepublic.com. 2 March 2021. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 2021-04-20.
  11. ^ "The Meaning of Black Roses". Flower Glossary. 11 April 2019.
  12. ^ Meadow, James B., Rocky Mountain News, 26 January 1998
  13. ^ Phillips, Henry (1831). Floral emblems: or a guide to the language of flowers. London: Saunders and Otley.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  14. ^ "Flower Meanings: Symbolism of Flowers, Herbs, and More Plants | The Old Farmer's Almanac". www.almanac.com. Retrieved 2024-03-06.
  15. ^ Jobes, Gertrude (1962). Dictionary of Mythology, Folklore, and Symbols. New York: The Scarecrow Press.
  16. ^ "The Language of Flowers". Folger Shakespeare Library. Archived from the original on 2014-09-19. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
  17. ^ Eriksson, Katarina. "Ophelia's Flowers and Their Symbolic Meaning". Huntington Botanical. Archived from the original on 2020-11-09. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
  18. ^ "Flowers in Shakespeare's plays / RHS Campaign for School Gardening". schoolgardening.rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 2016-11-02.
  19. ^ "Lily, Petunia and the language of flowers". Pottermore. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 2019-04-27.
  20. ^ "Symbolism in "The Chrysanthemums"". www.lonestar.edu. Retrieved 2016-10-31.
  21. ^ "アニメ『進撃の巨人』サシャへの"恋心"が発覚！ 白バラの意味に「涙が止まらない」 (2021年2月10日) - エキサイトニュース(2/2)". エキサイトニュース (in Japanese). Retrieved 2021-09-12.
  22. ^ "【進撃の巨人】ネタバレ122話考察！花が何を表すのかアニメも含め検証！｜進撃の巨人 ネタバレ考察【アース】". 進撃の巨人 ネタバレ考察【アース】 (in Japanese). 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
  23. ^ "Whitney Lynn". Arts - SAN. 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  24. ^ "Not Seeing Is A Flower - WHITNEY LYNN". whitneylynnstudio.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-08. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  25. ^ "Memorial Bouquet - WHITNEY LYNN". whitneylynnstudio.com. Archived from the original on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  26. ^ "Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  27. ^ "Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  28. ^ Boncompagni, Solas; Monzali, Maurizio (2021-06-24). Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism. I Libri del Casato. ISBN 978-88-98905-89-8.
  29. ^ "Trees, Plants, and Flowers", Studies in Biblical and Semitic Symbolism, Routledge, pp. 45–70, 2013-10-15, ISBN 978-1-315-01167-7, retrieved 2025-04-18
  30. ^ Boncompagni, Solas; Monzali, Maurizio (2021-06-24). Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism. I Libri del Casato. ISBN 978-88-98905-89-8.
  31. ^ Huss, Efrat; Yosef, Kfir Bar; Zaccai, Michele (2017-08-17). "The Meaning of Flowers: A Cultural and Perceptual Exploration of Ornamental Flowers". The Open Psychology Journal. 10 (1): 140–153. doi:10.2174/1874350101710010140. ISSN 1874-3501.
  32. ^ "Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  33. ^ Boncompagni, Solas; Monzali, Maurizio (2021-06-24). Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism. I Libri del Casato. ISBN 978-88-98905-89-8.
  34. ^ Huss, Efrat; Yosef, Kfir Bar; Zaccai, Michele (2017-08-17). "The Meaning of Flowers: A Cultural and Perceptual Exploration of Ornamental Flowers". The Open Psychology Journal. 10 (1): 140–153. doi:10.2174/1874350101710010140. ISSN 1874-3501.
  35. ^ Tay, SC (2023). "Flowers as symbols and metaphors in Chinese culture": 11696981 Bytes. doi:10.25959/23242250.V1. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  36. ^ a b c d e f Boncompagni, Solas; Monzali, Maurizio (2021-06-24). Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism. I Libri del Casato. ISBN 978-88-98905-89-8.
  37. ^ Sigourney, L. H. (1846). The voice of flowers. H.S. Parsons & Company.
  38. ^ "Greek Flowers and Plants in Mythology: Symbolism and Stories | History Cooperative". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  39. ^ "Greek Flowers and Plants in Mythology: Symbolism and Stories | History Cooperative". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  40. ^ "Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia". Bing. Retrieved 2025-04-18.
  41. ^ "The Language of Flowers: A Historical Journey of Floral Symbolism - History of Yesterday". historyofyesterday.com. 2023-10-25. Retrieved 2024-04-09.
  42. ^ "Floriography: When Flowers Talk (David Trinklein)". ipm.missouri.edu. Retrieved 2024-04-09.

Further reading

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Wikisource has the text of a 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article about Symbolism of Flowers.
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